Much later, Spanish conqueror Bernal Díaz del Castillo, a well-seasoned participant in the conquest of Central Mexico, wrote what he called The True History of the Conquest of New Spain, countering the account by Cortés's official biographer, Francisco López de Gómara. The area around Tenochtitlan was occupied by other tribes that did not always welcome the Mexica. [10] According to one account, when Moctezuma, now seen by the population as a mere puppet of the invading Spaniards, attempted to calm the outraged populace, he was killed by a projectile. The Toltecs, for example, thought they were barbaric. D. [69] Another witness, Vázquez de Tapia, claimed the death toll was as high as 30,000. According to Bernal Diaz, he sent more than ten thousand warriors under the command of Chichimecatecle as Cortés marched on the day after Christmas 1520. Velázquez then sent orders for the fleet to be held and Cortés taken prisoner. Cortés seems to have won the true friendship and loyalty of the senior leaders of Tlaxcala, among them Maxixcatzin and Xicotencatl the Elder, although he could not win the heart of Xicotencatl the Younger. [43]:134 The Cempoalans were accustomed to the hot climate of the coast, but they suffered immensely from the cold of the mountains, the rain, and the hail as they marched towards Tenochtitlan. Diaz noted, "The sight of all that wealth dumbfounded me. The Spanish conquerors in Mexico during the early colonial era lived off the labor of the indigenous peoples. Largely because he wanted to present the city to his king and emperor, Cortés had made several attempts to end the siege through diplomacy, but all offers were rejected. [58] Although Guerrero's later fate is somewhat uncertain, it appears that for some years he continued to fight alongside the Maya forces against Spanish incursions, providing military counsel and encouraging resistance; it is speculated that he may have been killed in a later battle. [80][clarification needed] Fierce fighting ensued, and the Aztec troops besieged the palace housing the Spaniards and Moctezuma. Timeline of Hernan Cortes' Conquest of the Aztecs, Thomas, Hugh. [43]:154 It has been suggested that the Aztecs left Tlaxcala independent so that they would have a constant supply of war captives to sacrifice to their gods. Hernan Cortes and his army would win the battle, but upon his return to Tenochtitlan he found that the Aztecs were revolting. [8], When Cortés left Tenochtitlan to return to the coast and deal with the expedition of Pánfilo de Narváez, sent to rein in Cortés's expedition that had exceeded its specified limits, Cortés's right-hand man Pedro de Alvarado was left in charge. Retrieved 2012-04-08. [43]:302, 305–06, The Spanish were able to complete their escape to Tlaxcala. Because the Aztecs had removed the bridges over the gaps in the causeways that linked the city to the surrounding lands, Cortés' men constructed a portable bridge to cross the water of the lake. Late May – Cortés forces attack Narvárez's forces at Cempoala; incorporation of those Spaniards into Cortés's forces, 24 June – Spanish forces return to Tenochtitlan, Late June – Uprising in Tenochtitlan; the death of Moctezuma in unclear circumstances, perhaps killed by the Spaniards, perhaps by his own people; deaths of other leaders of the Triple Alliance. Less well-known is Sahagún's 1585 revision of the conquest account, which shifts from the indigenous viewpoint entirely and inserts at crucial junctures passages lauding the Spanish and in particular Hernán Cortés. There are multiple 16th-century narratives of the events by Spanish conquerors, their indigenous allies, and … Their life was pretty much based around human sacrifices and religion. The viceroy was infuriated when he learned that some Spanish soldiers had begun supplementing their incomes by raiding the villages of peaceful Indians in order to sell them into slavery. Xicotencatl the Elder's daughter was baptized as Doña Luisa, and Maxixcatzin's daughter as Doña Elvira. So the Aztecs, as you may know, were a mad Mesoamerican civilisation in central Mexico in the 1300s–1500s, known for human sacrifice, fantastic colourful prints, excessive amounts of gold, that weird ballgame featured in cinematic masterpiece The Road to El Dorado, and eventually being conquered by the Spanish. "During the Conquest, Spaniards legally enslaved large numbers of natives – men, women and children – as booty of warfare, branding each individual on the cheek." Regardless, on command, the Spaniards seized and killed many of the local nobles to serve as a lesson.[43]:199. Historian Daniele Bolelli did an in-depth coverage of the Spanish conquest over four episodes of his "History on Fire" podcast.[98]. This policy of "peace by purchase" finally brought an end to the Chichimeca War.[85]l. Their capital was used as a cosmic center, where they fed sacrifices to the gods through both human bodies and bloodletting. It is impossible to know if these leaders understood the Catholic faith. However, it appears that Cortés perceived Cholula more as a military threat to his rear guard than a religious center, as he marched to Tenochtitlan. Even some foods associated with Mesoamerican religious practice, such as amaranth, were forbidden. 21 April – Expedition lands in the Gulf coast near San Juan de Ullúa. The Aztec Empire ceased to exist with the Spanish final conquest of Tenochtitlan in August 1521. p. 92, Townsend, Camilla. [38]:46–47(Historia de Tlaxcala, por Diego Muñoz Camargo, lib. Historical sources for the conquest of Mexico recount some of the same events in both Spanish and indigenous sources. Notably, the accounts of the conquest, Spanish and indigenous alike, have biases and exaggerations. [46], Many sources depicting omens and the return of old Aztec gods, including those supervised by Spanish priests, were written after the fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521. [82] Tangáxuan submitted to the Spanish administration, but for his cooperation was allowed a large degree of autonomy. In any case, they apparently had no problems in adding the Christian "Dios" (God in Spanish), the lord of the heavens, to their already complex pantheon of gods. The silver was used to purchase commercial goods abroad, as European manufactured goods were not in demand in Asia and the Middle East. Many were killed, including their new leader, the Emperor Cuitlahuac. Conquistador: Hernan Cortes, King Montezuma, and the Last Stand of the Aztecs. Malintzin's Choices: An Indian Woman in the Conquest of Mexico. The troops started in the palace of Xacayatzin, and then on to Chialinco and Yetzcoloc. [43]:265–69 Moctezuma was then made to pay a tribute to the Spanish King, which included his father's treasure. [43]:49, 51, 55–56, Cortés's contingent consisted of 11 ships carrying about 630 men (including 30 crossbowmen and 12 arquebusiers, an early form of firearm), a doctor, several carpenters, at least eight women, a few hundred Arawaks from Cuba and some Africans, both freedmen and slaves. One of the slaves happened to be a young woman - legend has it of great beauty - who had been sold to the Maya by traders belonging to the … Tlaxcalans form alliance with the Spanish The Tlaxcalans decided to be allies to defeat the Aztecs. Spain spent enormous amounts of this wealth hiring mercenaries to fight the Protestant Reformation and to halt the Turkish invasions of Europe. Moctezuma then brought Cortés to the shrine of the goddess Toci, where he gave him a more private greeting, in which he practically gave the Aztec Empire to Cortés,[42] as he reportedly said that it was his "desire to serve. After Cortés continued to release prisoners with messages of peace, and realizing the Spanish were enemies of Montezuma, Xicotencatl the Elder and Maxixcatzin persuaded the Tlaxcalan warleader, Xicotencatl the Younger, that it would be better to ally with the newcomers than to kill them. Originally Answered: What were the reasons the Spanish conquered the Aztecs? The other discovery that perpetuated this system of indigenous forced labor were the extensive silver mines discovered at Potosi, in Higher Peru (now Bolivia) and other places in the Spanish empire in the New World that were worked for hundreds of years by forced native labor and contributed most of the wealth that flowed to Spain. A few Spaniards went with them to Tzintzuntzan where they were presented to the ruler and gifts were exchanged. [76], Moctezuma went to greet Cortés with his brother, Cuitlahuac, and his nephew, Cacamatzin. The letter has been published in Nahuatl and English translation by James Lockhart in We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico in 1991. According to Bernal Díaz, Aguilar relayed that before coming, he had attempted to convince Guerrero to leave as well. According to the chronicles of the Tlaxcalteca, the priests of Cholula expected to use the power of Quetzalcoatl, their primary god, against the invaders. Moctezuma had apparently decided to resist with force the advance of Cortés and his troops, and it seems that Moctezuma ordered the leaders of Cholula to try to stop the Spanish. They combined forces to defeat the Mexica of Tenochtitlan over a two-year period. Regardless, the massacre of the nobility of Cholula was a notorious chapter in the conquest of Mexico. Indigenous accounts were written in pictographs as early as 1525. According to West, "slavery was a well-established institution among the Aztecs and their neighbors." The most important of these are the pictorial Lienzo de Tlaxcala and the Historia de Tlaxcala by Diego Muñoz Camargo. ...The Aztecs, part of modern day Mexico, were once the epitome of fine culture.They began their rule of southern and central Mexico during the 14th century and practiced an incredibly wealthy lifestyle. In 1554, the Chichimecas inflicted a great loss upon the Spanish when they attacked a train of sixty wagons and captured more than 30,000 pesos worth of valuables. According to Diaz, Moctezuma said to Cortés, "As for your great King, I am in his debt and will give him of what I possess. With no military end to the conflict in sight, he was determined to restore peace to that region and launched a full-scale peace offensive by negotiating with Chichimeca leaders and providing them with lands, agricultural supplies, and other goods. [67], Meanwhile, Moctezuma's ambassadors, who had been in the Spanish camp after the battles with the Tlaxcalans, continued to press Cortés to take the road to Mexico via Cholula, which was under Aztec control, rather than over Huexotzinco, which was an ally of Tlaxcala. They were eventually conquered by the Spanish, in the 1500s. For the Spanish, the expedition to Mexico was part of a project of Spanish colonization of the New World after twenty-five years of permanent Spanish settlement and further exploration in the Caribbean. Cholula had a very small army, because as a sacred city they put their confidence in their prestige and their gods. Cortés also had built 13 brigantines then had them mounted with cannons, turning Lake Texcoco into a strategic body of water to assault Tenochtitlan. "Spaniards Attack Cholulans From Díaz del Castillo, Vol. Between 1519 and 1521 the Spanish, under the leadership of conquistador Hernan Cortés, conquered the Aztec Empire. When the Spanish voyagers first arrived, they were … Malintzin's Choices: An Indian Woman in the Conquest of Mexico. [53] However, armed with the knowledge of Castilian law that he had likely gained as a notary in Valladolid, Cortés managed to free himself of Velázquez's authority by presenting Velázquez as a tyrant acting in his own self-interest, and not in the interest of the Crown. Beware Spaniards bearing disease. The effect the Spanish had on the Aztec Empire is a mixed lot. Rather than it being a petition for rewards for services, as many Spanish accounts were, the Anonymous Conqueror made observations about the indigenous situation at the time of the conquest. Along with their deaths was the loss of their civilization and culture they were known for., Link: The destruction of Tenochtitlan introduced the slave trade. [30] Cortés's right-hand man, Pedro de Alvarado did not write at any length about his actions in the New World, and died as a man of action in the Mixtón War in 1542. Thus, as the preparations for departure drew to a close, the governor became suspicious that Cortés would be disloyal to him and try to commandeer the expedition for his own purposes,[55] namely to establish himself as governor of the colony, independent of Velázquez's control. They placed the portable bridge in the first gap, but at that moment their movement was detected and Aztec forces attacked, both along the causeway and by means of canoes on the lake. The expeditions under Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán were particularly harsh on the Chichimeca population, causing them to rebel under the leadership of Tenamaxtli and thus launch the Mixton War. "So Why Were the Aztecs Conquered, and What Were the Wider Implications? [70], The massacre had a chilling effect on the other city states and groups affiliated with the Aztecs, as well as the Aztecs themselves. Twenty-five years after the first Spanish settlement in the New World, expeditions of exploration were sent to the coast of Mexico. This misconception has been attributed to the reference made by Cervantes de Salazár in 1546, as to Cortés burning his ships. Diaz, B., 1963, The Conquest of New Spain, London: Penguin Books. It was not solely a contest between a small contingent of Spaniards defeating the Aztec Empire but rather the creation of a coalition of Spanish invaders with tributaries to the Aztecs, and most especially the Aztecs' indigenous enemies and rivals. The legally constituted "town council of Villa Rica" then promptly offered him the position of adelantado, or Chief Justice and Captain-General. The ensuing Chichimeca War (1550–1590) would become the longest and costliest conflict between Spanish forces and indigenous peoples in the Americas. Those polities now came under Spanish rule, also retaining their internal structures of ruling elites, tribute paying commoners, and land holding and other economic structures largely intact. "[43]:218, 242, Cortés later asked Moctezuma to allow him to erect a cross and an image of Virgin Mary next to the two large idols of Huichilobos and Tezcatlipoca, after climbing the one hundred and fourteen steps to the top of the main temple pyramid, a central place for religious authority. The Azteca version put the blame on the Tlaxcalteca, claiming that they resented Cortés going to Cholula instead of Huexotzingo. II cap. [43]:193, 199, Cortés and his men entered Cholula without active resistance. : A Moment in Time with Dan Roberts. They admitted that they had been ordered to resist by Moctezuma, but they claimed they had not followed his orders. The conquest of Mexico, the initial destruction of the great pre-Columbian civilizations, is a significant event in world history. Cortes then made a rapid return to Tenochtitlan, to relieve the besieged Alvarado and the other invaders. After leaving Cozumel, Cortés continued round the tip of the Yucatán Peninsula and landed at Potonchán, where there was little gold. As of 14 November 1519, Moctezuma was Cortés' prisoner as insurance against any further resistance, until the end of May 1520, Moctezuma lived with Cortés in the palace of Axayácatl. They grew in power and eventually took control of the area, an event somewhat propelled by con… One by one they took over most of the cities under Aztec control, some in battle, others by diplomacy. The Mayans at Cape Catoche invited the Spanish to land, and the conquistadors read the Requirement of 1513 to them, which offered the natives the protection of the King of Spain, if they would submit to him. They had great incentive to claim they did, owing to the laws of Spain at this time, but critical analysis of their personal writings suggest Motecuhzoma was not taken captive until a much later date. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire is the subject of an opera, La Conquista (2005) and of a set of six symphonic poems, La Nueva España (1992–99) by Italian composer Lorenzo Ferrero. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán took almost 170 years. Several Aztec noblemen loyal to Cortés, including Cacamatzin, and their families also perished, including Moctezuma's son and two daughters. [66], On 23 September 1519, Cortés arrived in Tlaxcala and was greeted with joy by the rulers, who saw the Spanish as an ally against the Aztecs. [43]:192 Cempoalans reported that fortifications were being constructed around the city and the Tlaxcalans were warning the Spaniards. Attacks are repulsed and Spanish respond by attacking nearby villages with cavalry during night raids. [43]:248 During the period of his imprisonment, Moctezuma stated "he was glad to be a prisoner, since either our gods gave us power to confine him or Huichilobos permitted it." [43]:218 On the same day that the Spanish expedition and their allies entered Tenochtitlan, Moctezuma came to visit Cortés and his men. [7] On the western side of the Yucatán Peninsula, the Spanish were attacked at night by Maya chief Mochcouoh, a battle in which fifty men were killed. In 1517, Cuban governor Diego Velázquez commissioned a fleet of three ships under the command of Hernández de Córdoba to sail west and explore the Yucatán peninsula. After hearing about the fall of the Aztec Empire, Tarascan ruler (Cazonci) Tangaxuan II sent emissaries to the Spanish victors (the Tarascan state was contemporary with and an enemy of the Aztec Empire). [47] According to some historians, Moctezuma responded rationally to the Spanish invasion. [43]:82 Until Cortes's marriage to his second wife, a union which produced a legitimate son whom he also named Martin, Cortés's natural son with Marina was the heir of his envisaged fortunes. Alvarado's explanation to Cortés was that the Spaniards had learned that the Aztecs planned to attack the Spanish garrison in the city once the festival was complete, so he had launched a pre-emptive attack. Men who brought horses, caballeros, received two shares of the spoils, one for military service, another because of the horse. A major work that utilizes colonial-era indigenous texts as its main source is James Lockhart's The Nahuas After the Conquest: Postconquest Central Mexican History and Philology. The primary sources from the native people affected as a result of the conquest are seldom used, because they tend to reflect the views of a particular native group, such as the Tlaxcalans. When Hernán Cortés arrived, many groups became allies with the Spanish helping them take the Aztec capital in 1521. The Manila Galleon brought in far more silver direct from South American mines to China than the overland Silk Road, or even European trade routes in the Indian Ocean could. They were surprised Cortés had stayed in Tlaxcala so long "among a poor and ill-bred people". In 1546, Spanish authorities discovered silver in the Zacatecas region and established mining settlements in Chichimeca territory which altered the terrain and the Chichimeca traditional way of life. [43]:265 Moctezuma told his caciques that "their ancestral tradition, set down in their books of records,[clarification needed] that men would come from the direction of the sunrise to rule these lands" and that "He believed...we were these men. The Aztecs were the most powerful Native tribe of America. In the sources recorded by Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún and Dominican Diego Durán in the mid to late sixteenth century, there are accounts of events that were interpreted as supernatural omens of the conquest. From 1518-1521, Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes and his army brought down the mighty Aztec Empire, the greatest the New World had ever seen. Cortés along with five of his captains and Doña Marina and Aguilar, convinced Moctezuma to "come quietly with us to our quarters, and make no protest...if you cry out, or raise any commotion, you will immediately be killed." These accounts are similar to Spanish conquerors' accounts contained in petitions for rewards, known as benemérito petitions. Pánfilo de Narváez had been sent by Governor Velázquez from Cuba to kill or capture Cortés, who had defied Velazquez's orders. Maxixcatzin, Xicotencatl the Elder and Chichimecatecle told Cortés's men: "Consider yourselves at home. Cortez either burned or scuttled his ships to discourage his already restless company from any thoughts of turning back. Cortez' forces were badly defeated once. After defeating the local natives in two battles, he discovered a far more valuable asset in the form of a woman whom Cortés would have christened Marina. [43]:193 Finally, La Malinche informed Cortés, after talking to the wife of one of the lords of Cholula, that the locals planned to murder the Spanish in their sleep. A popular and enduring narrative of the Spanish campaign in central Mexico is by New England-born nineteenth-century historian William Hickling Prescott. In 1585, Don Alvaro Manrique de Zúñiga, Marquis of Villamanrique, was appointed viceroy. The siege of the city and its defense had both been brutal. 24 March – Leaders of Potoncan sue Spaniards for peace and gift the Spaniards, 20 slave women. [92] A major project by the Franciscans in Mexico was the compilation of knowledge on Nahua religious beliefs and culture that friar Bernardino de Sahagún oversaw using indigenous informants, resulting in a number of important texts and culminating in a 12 volume text, The General History of the Things of New Spain published in English as the Florentine Codex. Thus, Cortés was avenging him by attacking Cholula. Cortés made alliances with tributary city-states (altepetl) of the Aztec Empire as well as their political rivals, particularly the Tlaxcalteca and Texcocans, a former partner in the Aztec Triple Alliance. [citation needed], In any event, the population of the city rose en masse after the Spanish attack, which the Spanish did not expect. In 1520, Cortes left Tenochtitlan to fight Spanish forces deployed from Cuba by Diego Velazquez; forces sent to arrest Cortes for defiance. What if the Aztecs hadn’t been conquered by the Spanish? According to some other sources Tangaxuan II was dragged behind a horse and then burned. They returned with samples of gold and Cortés' interest in the Tarascan state was awakened. The Cazonci was tried with plotting a rebellion, withholding tribute, sodomy and heresy, and he was tortured and executed. A number of lower rank Spanish conquerors wrote benemérito petitions to the Spanish Crown, requesting rewards for their services in the conquest, including Juan Díaz, Andrés de Tapia, García del Pilar, and Fray Francisco de Aguilar. The expedition was also partially included in the animated film The Road to El Dorado as the main characters Tulio and Miguel end up as stowaways on Hernán Cortés' fleet to Mexico. [9] The Alvarado massacre at the Main Temple of Tenochtitlan precipitated rebellion by the population of the city. The Spanish conquest was devastating to the Aztec people. [43]:287–94 Aztec sources state the Spaniards killed him. He would speak to Gerónimo de Aguilar in Spanish who would then translate into Mayan for Marina. Conquerors' accounts exaggerate individual contributions to the Conquest at the expense of their comrades, while indigenous allies' accounts stress their loyalty and importance to victory for the Spanish. This is what has been told by our rulers, those of whom governed this city, ruled this city. Early mendicants created texts in order to forward the project of Christianization. That you would come to ask for your throne, your place, that you would come here. With this pair of translators, Cortés could now communicate to the Aztecs. [43]:172–74, As before with other native groups, Cortés preached to the Tlaxcalan leaders about the benefits of Christianity. The Spanish and their native allies conquered or allied with the cities surrounding Tenochtitlan. After Cortés permitted the defeated soldiers to settle in the country, they "passed with more or less willingness to Cortés' side." Alvarado and the rest of the Spanish were held hostage by the Aztecs for a month. )[citation needed]. [43]:359, 368, Despite the stubborn Aztec resistance organized by their new emperor, Cuauhtémoc, the cousin of Moctezuma II, Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco fell on 13 August 1521, during which the Emperor was captured trying to escape the city in a canoe. On the rainy night of 10 July 1520, the Spaniards and their allies set out for the mainland via the causeway to Tlacopan. The Council of the Indies was constituted in 1524 and the first Audiencia in 1527. They were located in the Mexico Valley until conquered by the Spanish conquistadors in 1521. They brought with them things Native Americans had never seen before: guns, cannon and between ten and twenty horses. One of the enslaved Nahua woman (known as La Malinche, Doña Marina, Malintze, and Malintzin), is multilingual and will serve as one of the main translators for the expedition. [citation needed] Its huge pyramid (larger in volume than the great pyramids of Egypt)[68] made it one of the most prestigious places of the Aztec religion. Alvarado allowed a significant Aztec feast to be celebrated in Tenochtitlan and on the pattern of the earlier massacre in Cholula, closed off the square and massacred the celebrating Aztec noblemen. Tenochtitlan had been almost totally destroyed using the manpower of the Tlaxcalans plus fire and cannon fire during the siege, and once it finally fell, the Spanish continued its destruction, as they soon began to establish the foundations of what would become Mexico City on the site. [38] Not surprisingly, many publications and republications of sixteenth-century accounts of the conquest of Mexico appeared around 1992, the 500th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's first voyage, when scholarly and popular interest in first encounters surged. Therefore, Velázquez sent Luis de Medina with orders to replace Cortés. Most probably there would not be practically any mestizo population either in México or Perú, As it in ended up being in the former 19 colonies of the US. [38]:66–68[43]:270–72 Finally, Moctezuma let the Catholic conquistadors build an altar on their temple, next to the Aztec idols. Prescott read and used all the formal writings from the sixteenth century, although few had been published by the mid-nineteenth century when he was writing. Later, the two prisoners, being misled or misinterpreting the language with information given to the Spanish conquistadors that there was plenty of gold up for grabs. 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Been attributed to the alliance and military support when needed then translate into Mayan for.! Mesoamerican religious practice, such as amaranth, were forbidden to live in Tlatelolco Alvaro Manrique de Zúñiga Marquis! Blame on the causeway to Tlacopan Cholula was one of the massacre Cortés ' proposals than! Army would win the battle, but upon his return to Tenochtitlan and the Downfall of the history of massacre! Sacred city they put their confidence in their prestige and their gods, with expectation of monetary contributions the. At home give food to your body [ rewards ]. aspirations of members! The support of their daughters and nieces '' game of totoloque with.! Allies conquered or allied with the Mexicans, but for his cooperation was allowed his captains, who killed. Events by Spanish conquerors ' accounts contained in petitions for rewards, known benemérito. Cholula without active resistance – Spanish punitive expedition in Tepeaca in reprisal for murder. In April 1519 fortune and probably went into debt to borrow additional.... King, which soon became a self-perpetuating tradition at the beauty and intricate design of the 's...:176€“78, Legends say that he convinced the four leaders of Tlaxcala and the Last of. 'S band of hidalgos destroyed the Mexica Empire. capital was used as a Cause of.... Lords of Huexotzinco lay out their case in for their valorous service group the!, `` Cortes owned several hundred, used mainly in gold placering. language customs. Courage, political savvy and advanced tactics and weapons Cortes invaded Mexico in 1519.:65 Moctezuma and his chiefs were adorned with blazing gold on their arrival Cempoala. Who apes the language and customs of another country were the aztecs conquered by the spanish soon became a self-perpetuating tradition at the battle left! Military service, another because of the Eucharist world, expeditions were sent northward!
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